The Principles of Proofreading

(Chapter 1 of Mark My Words)

Read the following sentence slowly:

FROZEN FOODS ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFRIGERATION

Now count aloud the F's in that sentence. Count only once.

The average person finds four F's. Identifying all seven is unusual — an indication of a mind already attuned to letter-by-letter reading. Because the mind knows there is an F in the unimportant word "OF," it is difficult to recognize the letter when reading for sense as well as for F's.

—The Complete Guide to Editorial Freelancing
Carol L. O'Neill and Avima Ruder
Dodd, Mead & Company, 1974

What proofreading is

Most people think of proofreading as skimming a document critically to catch and mark errors. In this general sense, most people occasionally proofread, if only to check the personal letters they write.

Professional proofreading, however, has had a somewhat different meaning, especially in the printing and publishing industries, as the following paragraphs explain.

Comparison proofreading

Professional proofreading always used to, and often still does, involve comparison — the comparison of two versions of the same document — to catch errors and to mark them so the corrector understands the instruction.

In the past, a typesetter replicated an author's typewritten manuscript, and a proofreader verified the typesetter's accuracy. Proofreading then involved painstaking comparison of the author's and the typesetter's documents to be sure the live copy (the newly produced version) matched the dead copy (the author's original version) word for word and letter for letter.

Today, word-processed manuscripts are more common than typewritten, and a publisher can "preserve the keystrokes" and eliminate the need for rekeying the manuscript. If a manuscript is rekeyed, a proofreader can compare the dead copy with the live copy either on paper (hard copy) or on the screen of a computer monitor.

When the live copy is on paper, a proofreader writes instructions (with proofreading marks, the traditional shorthand) telling the person who will be making the corrections what to do about the problems.

When there is no live hard copy, a proofreader may be the one to make the corrections on the screen (this process is discussed in Chapter 5).

Noncomparison proofreading

Proofreading by comparison, however, is less and less the way professional proofreaders work. Comparison proofreading, in fact, may not be possible in fully electronic publishing. Here's an example of how that situation can occur:

Let's say the editor of a newsletter writes an article, "proofreads" it on his computer's screen, corrects misspellings and other errors, and then transmits the article by telecommunication from his office in Connecticut to the publisher's computer in Washington, D.C.

Only when the publisher's production editor prints out the article does she have live copy on paper — hard copy. And although that hard copy might be considered a proof, and it needs to be read, there is nothing to compare it with. So the proofreading cycle for that document will start with noncomparison or dry reading.

From now on in the publishing process, however, every proofreading stage — making sure that all marked corrections are made properly and that no new errors have been introduced — should be done by comparing the relevant parts of the marked copy (now dead) with the corrected copy (now live). This continual comparison of all changes constitutes an important aspect of quality control.

What a proofreader does

A proofreader works with language in type. (From a proofreader's point of view, type is broadly defined as a collection of characters put on paper or other material mechanically. Even typewriters and rubber stamps produce type on a page.)

In comparison reading, a proofreader is expected to mark the live copy where it differs from the dead, such as where letters, words, or lines are omitted or repeated.

In any proofreading, a proofreader is expected to spot the following problems in the use of type:

• Deviations from specifications (specs), including use of the wrong typeface — roman (standard upright type), for example, where italic (slanted type) is specified.
• Problems in technical quality, such as misalignment, defective characters, wrong end-of-line word division, or bad spacing.

And, depending on the situation, a proofreader must stay alert for problems in language and thought, such as these:

• Nonstandard grammar (She don't talk good)
• Incorrect or missing punctuation (do'nt, dont)
• Inconsistent editorial style (in compound words, capitalization, abbreviation, and so on; for example: $10 Bargains at Thousand-Dollar Yard Sale)
• Incorrect arithmetic (Profits Fall 150%)
• Factual errors (Shakespeare's You Can't Take It With You)
• Inanities such as mixed metaphors or "Irish bulls" (If you're going to stand on this corner, you'll have to move on).

How much authority a proofreader has

Proofreaders must do one of three things to every error or problem they find: ignore it, mark it, or query it (ask a question about it). In comparison proofreading, a proofreader is expected to find and mark the live copy where it deviates from the dead copy; that's one of the main reasons the document is being proofread. But some problems originate in the dead copy. For these problems, the proofreader will have an assigned level of authority determining how much to ignore, mark, or query. The ability to stay within the authorized limit is a mark of the proofreader's competence.

Everyone for whom proofreaders work may have a different idea of how much needs to be done, and every job (or every step in the publishing process) may allow a different level. Proofreaders working beyond level 1 in the following classification must be sure they have the authority to do so.

1. First level
• Mark only the following, nothing more:
• Deviations from specifications, from appropriate typographic standards (such as page and column breaks), and from dead copy (if it exists)
• Misspellings (that originated in the dead copy)
• Wrong word divisions (line-end word breaks)
• Query nothing.
2. Second level
• Mark as in level 1.
• Tactfully query glaring errors in language — the kind that would be noticed by anyone with a high school education who was good in English and that would embarrass the author or confuse the reader.
3. High level
• Mark as in level 1.
• Also mark glaring errors in language, the kind you queried at level 2.
• Tactfully query moderate errors in language — those instantly conspicuous to a trained eye (such as that of a high school English teacher).
4. Top proofreading level
• Mark any errors that might embarrass a careful writer or editor, irritate a knowledgeable reader, or confuse an inattentive reader.
• Also, tactfully query any lesser errors.
5. Minimum copy editing level (proofreading plus light copy editing)
• Mark as in level 4.
• Go ahead and make the changes you would only have queried at lower levels.

Figure 1 summarizes the levels of authority.

At level 1, queries of even the most blatant and indefensible problems are useless and unwelcome. In jobs at this level, the deadlines or budgets are too tight for extra corrections or no one is available to answer queries.

Editorial proofreading (catching some of the errors a copy editor would) starts at level 2 with minimal querying on both comparison and noncomparison proofreading and progresses to level 5, which is equivalent to a light copy edit.

The level of authority may well be cut back at certain stages of production. Although today's desktop publishing (DTP) systems make corrections easier than ever before, corrections at late stages can still be costly; some are just too expensive for a proofreader to authorize.

How proofreading and copy editing differ

At level 5, the distinction between proofreading and copy editing blurs. But in traditional publishing, proofreaders seldom work at levels 3 to 5, partly because of publication deadlines, partly because of the cost of corrections. Generally, proofreading and copy editing differ in these ways:

• Copy editors correct an author's work and prepare the document for the next stage in the production process.
• Proofreaders come into the picture at a later stage; they correct a keyboard operator's or typesetter's work — and may query other problems.

What it takes to proofread well

In addition to broad general knowledge, to proofread well takes specialized knowledge, technical know-how, judgment, vigilance, and a "typographic eye."

The specialized knowledge needed is twofold — of type and of language.

To criticize type — what a document looks like — you must know how the type you're reading is produced, what the equipment's capabilities are, what the accepted typographic standards are for the kind of copy you are working on, and what can go wrong.

For example, although copy from a typewriter is all but gone from the proofreader's purview, typewriter typefaces are still available — on computers. The conventions of typewritten copy, however, work well only with these fonts; they are inappropriate in more sophisticated typography. One common mistake occurs because many word processing operators are former typists accustomed to using two hyphens to represent a common dash (--), a practice that is correct only with a typewriter font [or in other circumstances where em dashes are not available, as on the Web]. A typeset (as opposed to typewritten) font provides a separate symbol for the hyphen and the common dash (-, --), and when such a font is used, copy that shows two hyphens instead of a proper dash lacks typographic nicety.

To criticize language — how a document says what it does — you must, above all, know the rules of spelling. (Take the spelling test on page 149 and read "Spelling" in Chapter 8.) For certain kinds of proofreading you should also know the rules for punctuation, grammar, usage, and editorial style, and, for some jobs, you must be able to detect illogical reasoning and inappropriate tone (attitude).

With the needed technical know-how, you can find errors quickly and efficiently and mark them so whoever makes the corrections understands what to do.

With judgment, you can work effectively at your level of authority. Nothing you do is wasted; everything you do matters.

Knowledge of type and language and technical know-how can be learned, and judgment comes with experience. But vigilance — unrelenting watchfulness — is a part of your character, your attitude, and your general state of physical and emotional health.

The typographic eye is a visual nitpicking ability. You must be able to spot evidence of poor workmanship, such as a capital O instead of a zero (O, 0), a letter l instead of the figure 1 (l, 1), or a backwards apostrophe (the `80s, the '80s). And you must be able to see minute misalignment of figures like that in the following column as well as small disparities in space like that shown in the parallel lines.

What the methods of comparison proofreading are

Solo proofreading is one-person proofreading. Team proofreading is two-person or partner proofreading.

In team proofreading, the copyholder reads aloud the dead copy to the proofreader (sometimes called the first reader or copymarker), who marks the live copy. Everything is read — punctuation, capitalization, changes in spacing or typeface, and so on. Equally qualified partners may sometimes switch roles.

Two other forms of proofreading use some of the techniques of team reading. In tape proofreading, a reader uses a tape recorder to record the dead copy. Later, a marker listens while following the live copy. The reader and marker may be the same person.

In electronic reading, a device that simulates the human voice reads the copy aloud to the proofreader-marker.

Chapter 5 presents the methods of proofreading in detail.

How to proofread

The following advice will help you get started on the way to a professional approach to solo proofreading. More detailed advice appears in later chapters. Assuming that you write directly on the live copy —

• Read and absorb the instructions and specifications.
• Know exactly what your authority is, what's expected of you, and what your deadline is.
• Be sure you have all the dead and live copy. Check the numbers on pages or galleys and make sure that none is missing or repeated. If pages or galleys aren't numbered, number them on their backs, or write the numbers very lightly and erase them later.
• Verify that the live copy follows the instructions and specs. For typeset copy, use a type gauge to measure the live copy's line width and depth (see Appendix D). As you read, check that the correct style of type has been used at every change, for example, in headings and footnotes.
• Put the dead copy (if you have it) and the live copy side by side on your workspace (if you're right-handed, the live copy will be on the right).
• Use a guide such as a ruler to keep your place in the dead copy, line by line. Use the eraser end of your pencil to follow the live copy letter by letter. Turn your pencil over when you need to mark corrections or write queries.
• Compare the two versions minutely. Read a few words of the dead copy and then the same words in the live, verifying that every letter, every punctuation mark, every number, and every symbol are the same.
• Experiment to find out how much dead copy you can accurately remember at one time to compare with the live copy: in some jobs, or in some parts of jobs, you'll be able to read whole sentences; in others, just a few characters.
• Watch the live copy for typographic errors (typos).
• Watch the live copy for typographic faults such as uneven margins, broken letters, and characters that lack sharpness.
• Watch also for misspellings and errors in language — errors that appear in the dead copy and have been faithfully duplicated.
• If you have the authority to query, do so tactfully; if you have the authority to make corrections, keep them to a reasonable minimum.
• Be sure you can back up every kind of correction or query that you make with a rule or model from a recognized reference work.
• Use a standard dictionary to verify spelling. You don't have to be a spelling-bee winner to be a good proofreader, but you must know which words give you trouble, and you must take the time to look them up.
• Use a dictionary or a word division guide to verify end-of-line word breaks.
• Have on hand a standard dictionary, an almanac, an atlas, and whatever other reference books the job you're proofreading requires. But don't check anything except spelling unless you're sure you're expected to do more.
• Prefer standard proofreading marks — modified, if necessary, to suit the copy and the correction process. Standard marks and modified marks are both presented in this book.
• After your comparison reading, read the live copy by itself — from beginning to end — to catch anything you may have missed and to be sure it all makes sense. Stay vigilant. If you find something dubious, check the dead copy.
• If you need to, and if you have time, go over the live copy again as often as necessary to recheck what you know you tend to miss when you try to do everything at once. For example, you may need to check word breaks or the sequence of numbers in footnotes or the pairing of quotation marks and of parentheses. Some experienced proofreaders make three separate passes, each with a different objective. Chapter 6 goes into this kind of rechecking in more detail.

Why standard marks are best

The marking system used by professional proofreaders has proved its efficiency and effectiveness over the centuries. Without the shorthand of proofreading marks, specific instructions to correct the errors in the following sentence take more words than the sentence itself:

With standard proofreading marks, the instructions are clear and specific:

Standard marks and marking techniques are practical for several other reasons:

• They are widely understood.
• They ensure that a job divided among proofreaders will be marked uniformly.
• In the evolution of printing and typesetting, they are examples of the survival of the fittest — designs achieving maximum accuracy, speed, and clarity for those who write them and those who read them.
• They are basic to traditional forms of typesetting and printing. Slightly modified, they work with any form. A proofreader who knows them well can easily adapt them to different kinds of jobs and employers.

When to use standard marks

Use standard marks and marking techniques as described in Chapters 2 and 3 when all the following conditions are met:

• You know that the corrector understands standard marks or is willing to improve speed, accuracy, and clarity by learning them.
• The copy won't be harmed by the marks. Any kind of duplicate, such as a copy from a copying machine, or any kind of preliminary printout, such as a page from a computer, is a candidate for standard marks. When in doubt, make copies on a copying machine and mark the copies. Or use a marking system that won't harm the copy, as shown later in the book.
• The copy has too little room between lines for you to write there easily. Typeset pages like this one have too little room for writing between lines; so do single-spaced typewritten pages. When you use standard proofreading marks properly, you never write between lines; the only thing that goes inside the text is a locator mark.

A full list of standard proofreading marks is found at the end of Chapter 3.

How to mark for correction

Chapters 2 and 3 discuss standard marks in detail, and Chapter 4 discusses the ways standard marks may be modified to suit different kinds of copy.

If you need to get started quickly, Appendix A provides a "cheat sheet" — an introductory marking system that will be understood by any corrector who knows standard marks.

What you need to know

If you proofread only once in a while, or if you mark and correct your own work, you may need to learn no more than the cheat sheet teaches. But if you want or need to be fully informed, you will read Chapters 2, 3, and 4. And if you want to be fully professional, you will begin by working your way through this entire book.